Alexandre se frotta les yeux avec le revers du pouce, et porta les mains a ses reins. (R. Merle)

Alex wiped his eyes with the back of his thumb, and put his hands on his loins.

From this example is clearly seen that the French use the definite article instead of possessive pronouns in English.

3) the meaning of generalization.

e.g. L'homme est plutot un animal bienveillant quand il n'est ni jaloux ni inquiet.(A. Maurois) - Man is rather a well-wishing animal when he is neither jealous nor anxious.

We can observe the difference in using the definite article in English and French. In French sentence we have the noun used with the definite article in its generalizing function. The noun in English variant is not used with the definite article as in this case the noun man has a generic sense and no article is used.

4) distributive meaning.

e.g. … Nous ne pouvons vous racheter cela a plus de deux cents francs le metre .

We can't buy it more than two hundreds francs per meter.

The definite article used in French sentence is translated by the term per in English with the meaning of each.

5) It can indicate a usual fact that is repeated regularly.

e.g. Comme ca doit vous assommer de vous habiller devant elle, le matin.

Thus you have to assume that you have to dress up before her every morning.

In this example le matin has the meaning of every morning that is why we translate it in English with the indefinite adjective every.

6) Before cardinal numerals it can designate approximation in the meaning of “about”. This refers to the cases when the definite article precedes such nouns as heure (hour), ans, annees (years), mois (month), etc.

e.g. Elle avais un visage si clair, un peau si tendre ; elle etait bien jolie dans sa robe rose et menue, elle pouvait avoir dans les huit ans.

She had a bright face, a gentle skin, she was beautiful in her fine pink dress, and she was about eight years.

The definite article used in French is translated by the preposition about in the meaning of imprecise number.

After analyzing the use of the definite article in French sentences and studying their translations into English we discover some differences in the functions and meanings of the definite article in English and French. The differences appear in cases when the definite article in French is translated in English by possessive, indefinite adjectives and prepositions depending on the meaning it conveys:

1. possessive meaning of the French definite article;

2. generalizing meaning;

3. distributive meaning;

4. indication of the usual fact;

5. in the meaning of imprecise number.

The only similarity that exists between the functions of the definite article in both languages is that of a demonstrative that serves for denoting a single object from the others.

2.3 The Usage of the Definite Article with Class Nouns in English

As it was stated in the paragraph 1.2.1 the definite article is used before the nouns in singular and plural. The definite article can be used with different types of nouns: proper nouns and common nouns. We are mostly interested in the use of the definite article with common nouns namely the use of the definite article with class nouns. Class nouns are the nouns that denote persons or things belonging to a class. They are countable and have two numbers: singular and plural.

For defining the general rules of the definite article's usage with class nouns we consulted the books on the English grammar of several linguists: V. L. Kaushanskaya, E. M. Gordon, Gashina, L. A. Barmina and I. P. Verkhovskaya. After looking up Kaushanskaya's, Gashina's and Vasilevskaya's books we singled out the following cases of the usage of the definite article with class nouns.

The definite article can be used with class nouns:

1. When a class-noun denotes an object which is regarded by the speaker as a definite object distinct from all other objects of a certain class. The context or the whole situation shows that the speaker has a definite object in mind and therefore uses the definite article. An object is singled out in the following cases:

a) when the speaker and the hearer know what particular object is meant. No special indication is necessary.

How did you like the play?

That means that interlocutors know which play they are talking about. In this case the is a kind of indicator.

b) when the speaker uses an attribute pointing out a particular object. Such an attribute might be called a particularizing attribute. A particularizing attribute is used to single out an object from all the objects of the class, to point out one particular object or group of objects. A particularizing attribute can be expressed by an “of”-phrase or an attributive clause. It is always used in post-position.

e. g.: He knocked at the door of a very neat house.

The letters that I have here have come to me quite by accident.

When a noun is used with an attribute it is clear that one certain object from the whole group is meant. The definite article precedes the noun thus helping the reader to figure out that object.

c) when the situation itself makes the object definite.

e. g.: The wedding looked dismal. The bride was too old and the bridegroom was too young.

From this example we understand that not any bride and bridegroom are meant, but those from the dismal wedding.

When an object is singled out from all the objects of a given class the definite article retains its demonstrative meaning, and the English use the definite article much oftener than the demonstrative pronouns this or that. This can be explained by the easiness in pronunciation. Analyzing all these three instances we notice that the is used mostly in the function of a determinative to distinguish an object from a number of objects similar to it.

2. The definite article is used with class nouns which denote things considered to be unique, such as the earth, the sun, the moon. Here we have a special case: the class consists only of one representative, and therefore the object denoted by the noun is always definite in our mind.

e. g. The earth and the sky were already beginning to be enriched with the evening (Chesterton).

3. With nouns used in a generic sense.

A singular countable noun with a definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming a composite image of that class (but not a typical representative). A noun in this function is called a generic singular. A noun used in a generic sense denotes a genus taken as a whole, a thing taken as a type, a genre.

e. g. The violet is a lovely flower.

The tragedy and the comedy first appeared in Greece.

Note 1. It is also sometimes possible to use the indefinite article in similar cases.

e. g. A violet is a lovely flower.

This use of the indefinite article is not to be identified, however, with the generic function of the definite article. The indefinite article is used here in its nominating function, implying any representative of the class. Hence the use of the indefinite article is not equivalent to that of the definite article when the noun is used as a composite image of a whole class. For that reason the indefinite article is not possible in the following sentences:

e. g. Now the horse has been replaced by the tractor.

“In this lecture I am going to speak about the article in English”, said the professor.

Note 2. When the noun man in a generic sense no article is used.

e. g. Silas felt that his trust in man had been cruelly destroyed. (Eliot)

When the noun woman is used in a generic sense it is used with the definite article or occasionally without an article.

e. g. He had always been interested in that mysterious being the woman.

(Bennett)

Woman is man's helpmate.

A noun used in a generic sense should not be confused with a noun used in a general sense.

A noun used in a general sense denotes an object regarded as an individual representative of a class.

e. g. A detective story helps to while away the time.

(Every or any detective story is meant here).

A noun in a generic sense denotes the whole class.

e. g. Conan Doyle is a master of the detective story.

(The detective story is regarded here as a certain genre).

These are all the cases of the usage of the definite article with class nouns according to Kaushanskaya. Looking over Gordon's and Barmina's books on grammar of the English language we can notice that they make a more detailed examination of the usage of the definite article with class nouns used with attributes. E. M. Gordon mentions that since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general situation, we should take into consideration attributes modifying the noun. He distinguishes two kinds of attributes: limiting and descriptive.

A l i m i t i n g attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an object (or a group of objects) which makes it distinct from all other objects of the class.

A d e s c r i p t i v e attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects) or give additional information about it. This kind of attribute does not single out an object (or a group of objects) but only narrows the class to which it belongs.

The linguist states that nouns modified by limiting attributes are used with the definite article and nouns modified by descriptive attributes may be used with either the indefinite or the definite articles, as the choice of articles for countable nouns is not affected by this kind of attribute. So, we can make the conclusion that in the majority of cases when nouns are modified by a limited attribute it is used with the definite article, but it appears that it can be used with nouns modified by the descriptive attributes.

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