Anyway, presupposition is characterized by three essential factors:

- its drawability (ambiguity);

- its insensitiveness to negation (cf. Even he came late. - Even he did not come late./the sentences are quite different in meaning but the presupposition is the same: contrary to my expectations/);

- its pragmatic contents (it shows the author's attitude).

Point 2. Actual division of the sentence. Methods of identification of the theme and the rheme.

(a) Alongside of the traditional nominative division of the sentence, the idea of the so-called `actual division' of the sentence has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of the actual division of the sentence, called also the `functional sentence perspective' (FSP), is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the sentence in the context of connected speech. In other words, the actual division of the sentence in fact exposes its informative perspective.

(b) The main components of the actual division of the sentence are the theme (T) and the rheme (R). The theme (from the Greek `the' - `to set', `to establish') expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an object or a phenomenon about which something is reported. The rheme (from the Greek `rhe' - `to say', `to tell') expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant center. Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of various degrees of informative value (these parts are sometimes called `transition'). The theme and the rheme of the actual division of the sentence may or may not coincide with the subject and the predicate, respectively.

E.g. They obeyed. Here is your book.

T R T R

Point 3. The main semantic types of sentences. Existential sentences. Qualifying sentences. Identifying sentences and others.

(a) The semantic classification of simple sentences should be effected at least on the three bases: first, on the basis of the subject categorical meanings; second, on the basis of the predicate categorical meanings; third, on the basis of the subject-object relation.

Reflecting the categories of the subject, simple sentences are divided into personal and impersonal. The further division of the personal sentences is into human and non-human; human - into definite and indefinite; non-human - into animate and inanimate. The further essential division of impersonal sentences is into factual (It rains; It's 5 o'clock) and perceptional (It smells of hay here).

Reflecting the categories of the predicate, simple sentences are divided into process-featuring (`verbal') and, in the broad sense, substance-featuring (`nominal'). Among the process-featuring sentences actional and statal ones are to be discriminated (The window is opening. - The window is glistening in the sun.); among the substance-featuring sentences factual and perceptional ones are to be discriminated (The sea is rough. - The place seems quiet.).

Finally, reflecting the subject-object relation, simple sentences should be divided into subjective (John lives in London.), objective (John reads a book.) and neutral or `potentially' objective (John reads.), capable of implying both the transitive action of the syntactic person and the syntactic person's intransitive characteristic.

On the other hand, taking into account general semantics of sentences, we may classify them into existential, qualifying, identifying, etc.

(b) Existential sentences express the general idea of something or somebody existing by means of various lexico-semantic facilities, of which the predicate is the signemic center.

(c) Qualifying sentences lay the main stress on qualifying some fact of reality conveyed in speech, whether it is substance, action or state, etc.

(d) Identifying sentences mostly serve to identify various phenomena with each other to express the idea more clearly and adequately.

Theme 8. THE SENTENCE (continued).

Point 4. Communicative types of sentences.

In accord with the purpose of communication three cardinal sentence-types have long been recognized in linguistic tradition: first, the declarative sentence; second, the imperative (inductive) sentence; third, the interrogative sentence.

The declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative, and as such stands in systemic syntagmatic correlation with listener's responding signals of attention, of appraisal (including agreement or disagreement), or of fellow-feeling.

The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. That is, it urges the listener, in the form of request or command, to perform or not to perform a certain action. As such, the imperative sentence is situationally connected with the corresponding `action response', and lingually is systemically correlated with a verbal response showing that the inducement is either complied with, or else rejected.

The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener. It is naturally connected with the answer, forming together with it a question-answer dialogue unity.

Point 5. Nominative and modal-communicative aspects of the sentence. Modus and dictum.

(a) The nominative aspect of the sentence is a major functional and lingual aspect of speech. Nomination effects naming of sentential events or situations whereas modal-communicative aspects correlate the named events or situations with reality, considering the purpose of communication.

The modal aspect is versatile. Structurally, the basic modal aspect is the one implied by the mood of the verb-predicate. It is inherent in every sentence. Even verbless sentences are thought of as belonging to some kind of aspect. The basic modal aspect presents the described as real or unreal. Another modal layer of meanings, conveyed by modal words and constructions, serves to enhance or diminish the general modal meaning of the sentence, and brings in a subjective flavour, showing the author's attitude clearly and distinctly.

(b) Modus (Latin - `measure', `method') denotes any means of reporting some communication in speech, comprising a great variety of lexico-grammatical signals.

Dictum (from the Latin `dicto' - `I dictate', `I order') denotes any piece of communication within the framework of connected speech.

Point 6. Pragmatic aspects of the sentence. The correlation of semantics and pragmatics of the sentence.

(a) Pragmatic syntax studies the social designation of language, i.e. the usage of sentences in speech activity. The sentence is a concentration of functional peculiarities of language and speech. Studying sentence pragmatics comprises an important sphere of language knowledge, since language literacy presupposes not only an ability to construct sentences (language competence) but also an ability to use them correctly in acts of speech to achieve the desired communicative-functional result (communicative competence).

Pragmatic aspects of the sentence include the following notions:

- communicative intention, which is, inherent in the sentence, directiveness to solving a definite lingual problem of communication;

- locution, which is the use of cognitive contents of the sentence, without any communicative purpose;

- illocution, which is an intonational framing of a communicative intention;

- perlocution, which is the effect of an act of speech.

(b) Since the contents of sentences, actualized in acts of speech, is not limited to lexico-grammatical in formation only, but always includes communicative-intentional, or pragmatic, contents, this semantic peculiarity is of great importance. Semantically identical sentences may have various illocutionary points, e.g. the sentence `I'll watch you' may be used as a statement, a promise, a menace, an inquiry, etc. However, there are cases when the semantics of the sentence predetermines its pragmatics, e.g. the sentence `The train will arrive in time' cannot mean a promise, for the reality of the action does not depend on the speaker.

Point 7. The sentence and the speech act. Pragmatic transposition of the sentence.

(a) The definition of the sentence implies its structural framing, as well as lexico-grammatical, semantic and pragmatic features. We may also say that the sentence is a unit of speech. On the other hand, the speech act is any piece of communication, which means that it may be both smaller and larger than the sentence, or it may coincide with the sentence, in volume.

(b) The loose character of the relations between the form and contents, inherent in language as a whole, also shows through in pragmatics. A sentence belonging to a certain pragmatic type by its formal features, in speech realization may acquire the illocutionary power of the sentences belonging to another type. For example, an interrogative in form and contents sentence may have the illocutionary power of inducement: Are you still here? (=Go away at once!). Uttering this sentence, the speaker does not expect any reply from the listener. In such cases it is commonplace to speak of `indirect' acts of speech.

Point 8. Structural and syntactic types of sentences. Simple sentences (one-member and two-member sentences). Composite sentences (compound and complex sentences). Complete and elliptical sentences. Types of nominalization of the English sentence.

(a) According to their structure all sentences are divided into simple and composite sentences.

(b) Simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

A two-member sentence has two members - a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context.

A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete.

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