The Roman Empire fell in the 5th century. London have maintained its trading activity. In the 9th century Danish invaders destroyed much of the city. They were followed by the Saxons led by King Alfred the Great, who entered the city in 886. The Danes remained a powerful force in England, however, and it was not until the reign of Edward the Confessor, which began in 1042, that civic stability was re-established, to be cemented by the Norman Conquest in 1066.
William the Conqueror centred his power at the Tower of London, and his White Tower is still the heart of this impressive monument.
The City soon united its economic power with political independence. Late in the 12th century it elected its own Lord Mayor. From 1351 it elected its own council, and by the end of the 14th century the reigning sovereign could not enter the City without permission.
In the reign of Elizabeth I had the arts a renaissance with such great dramatists as Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson.
In 1665, London had been devastated first by the Great Plague, and then by the Fire of London, which destroyed most of the city the following year. During the reconstruction of the city, following the original street pattern, the architect Sir Christopher Wren was given responsibility for the design of a number of State-funded buildings, including St. Paul's Cathedral.
The western part of London was developed under the Hanoverian Kings: great squares were laid out such as those of Grosvenor, Cavendish, Berkeley, and Hanover, and more bridges were built across the river. Public services were improved, such as the water supply and sewerage systems, and the streets were paved.
In the 19th century London's population began to rise still more rapidly: it increased sixfold over the century as a whole, thanks to influx from all over the British Isles, from Britain's colonies, and from continental Europe. The Industrial Revolution was creating huge numbers of jobs, but never enough to satisfy the hopes of all the poor people who came to the capital. The novels of Charles Dickens tell us about the social problems of that period.
The First World War had little effect on London, but the Depression that followed in the late 1920s and early 1930s hit the whole country, including the capital. There were hunger marches and riots. London was to pay far more dearly during World War II. The intensive bombing of London (The Blitz) in 1940-1941 took the lives of 10,000 people and left 17,000 injured. Countless historic buildings were damaged, including the Houses of Parliament.
After the war London was to re-emerge as a radically different city. The docks had been so severely damaged that reconstruction, a very expensive process, was not reasonable. By the end of the 1950s most of the war damage had been repaired. New skyscrapers were built, outdoing each other in height and spectacular design. The 30-storey Post Office Tower was built in 1965. It is 189 m high. Other significant post-war developments include the 183 m National Westminster Bank Building (1979); and Britain's highest building, the 244 m Canary Wharf Tower on the Docklands site, near to a new City airport.
General understanding:
1) What was the original name of London? Why was it so important for Romans?
2) Who was King Alfred the Great? When did he enter the city?
3) What is still the reminder of William the Conqueror?
4) How was Britain governed in 12th-14th centuries?
5) How did plague influence the history of London?
6) Who was in charge of the reconstruction of the city? Why did it need reconstruction?
7) Why did the population of London grow in the 19th century?
8) How did the First World War affect the history of London? What about the WWII?
9) How did London change after the WWII?
10) What are the names of skyscraper buildings in London?
Заменителями глагола must являются глаголы to have to и to be to, которые имеют некоторые дополнительные оттенками значения. Глагол to have to означает долженствование, вызванное обстоятельствами, вынужденную необходимость, в то время как глагол to be to -- долженствование, связанное с расписанием, планом или заранее сделанной договоренностью.
She had to stay at home. -- Она вынуждена была (ей пришлось) остаться дома.
The train was to arrive at 8 in the evening. -- Поезд должен был прибыть в 8 вечера. (По расписанию).
После модальных глаголов и некоторых их эквивалентов инфинитив употребляется без частицы to.
Заменителями модального глагола must являются также модальные глаголы ought to, should (в значении совета, рекомендации, упрека) и shall (испрашивается разрешение на совершение действия).
You should enter the Institute. Вам следует поступить в институт (рекомендация, совет),
В сочетании с перфектным инфинитивом глагол should выражает сожаление о невыполненном действии и переводится «следовало бы».
You should have helped them. Вам следовало бы помочь им. (Но вы не сделали этого).
Shall I read? Мне следует читать?
Модальный глагол would может иметь следующие
значения:
1) Вежливая просьба. Would you help me? He поможете ли вы мне?
2) Повторяемость действия в прошлом. Не would often help me. Он, бывало, часто помогал мне.
3) Стойкое нежелание совершать какие-либо действия. Не wouldn't listen to me. Он никак не хотел слушать меня. -
Модальный глагол need - «нужно, надо» употребляется, в основном, в отрицательных предложениях. You needn't do it now. Вам не нужно делать это сейчас.
Exercise 6.7. Analyse the use of modal verbs and translate the following sentences:
1. Who can answer my question?
2. Nobody could translate this text.
3. He ought to do this task at once.
4. Must I attend this meeting? -- No, you needn't.
5. You should have shown your notes to the teacher.
6. I asked him, but he wouldn't listen to me.
7. They should visit her, she is in the hospital.
8. Last summer we would often go to the country.
9. Your son can do this work himself.
10. Would you tell me the way to the station?
11. Your friend might have informed us.
12. May I leave for a while? -- Yes, you may.
13. She should be more attentive at the lessons.
14. You needn't come so early.
Exercise 6.8. Insert necessary modal verbs:
1. I... not go to the theatre with them last night, I... revise the grammar rules and the words for the test. 2. My friend lives a long way from his office and... get up early. 3. All of us... be in time for classes. 4. When my friend has his English, he... stay at the office after work. He (not)... stay at the office on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday and... get home early. 5.... you... work hard to do well in your English? 6. «... we discuss this question now?» «No, we... We... do it tomorrow afternoon.» 7. I'm glad you... come. 8. «... you... come and have dinner with us tomorrow? » «I'd love to. » 9. «Please send them this article.» «Oh,... I do it now?»
Exercise 6.9. Translate into English using modal verbs:
1. Мы обязательно должны писать диктант сегодня? -- Да, завтра мы будем учить новые слова. 2. Вчера мне пришлось ответить на все эти письма. 3. Виктора тоже пригласить на обед? -- Да, сделайте это, пожалуйста. 4. Вам пришлось остаться дома, потому что была плохая погода? 5. Вы обязательно должны прийти и посмотреть нашу новую квартиру.-- С удовольствием. 6. Я рад, что мне не пришлось заканчивать эту работу вчера. 7. Я не люблю поздно ложиться спать, но иногда мне приходится. 8. Можно мне пойти погулять сейчас? -- Нет, нельзя. Ты должен скоро ложиться спать. 9. Вам следует навестить вашего друга. Он вчера не пришел на урок. 10. Почему ты не пришла? -- Я не могла, я должна была помочь маме по дому. 11. Вам не нужно идти в библиотеку, у нас много книг дома, и вы можете взять любую, какую хотите.
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