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Рефераты. Affixation in modern english
In ME there are nominal and verbal suffixes. The suffixs -
f
old
, -
m
ost
and -
wa
rd
form words which are used both as adjectives and adverbs.
The meaning of a suffix is conditioned by the particular semantic character of the basis to which the suffix is attached, also by the linguistic circumstances in which the coinage is made. In general parlance, a
fiver
is a bill of five (dollars or pounds), in crikret, jargon it is a hit for five, in school life it may denote a boy who always scrapes through with a five. A
greening
is a green variety of apple or pear, but a
whiting
is a white variety of fish. For other possibilities see -
e
r
and -
i
ng
, for instance. Some concepts are apt to be represented by suffixes in many languages as those of condition (state, quality etc), appurtenance, collectivity, endearment agent a.o, but theoretically there is no telling what concept may not develop to find expression in a suffix. French has a suffix -
i
er
(type
pommier
) to denote fruit trees, there I -
i
le
for the idea of stable for demos tic animals, 0.6 has a suffix -
i
t is
(type nephritis) meaning disease. These have no parallels in English, or in German either. But no intrinsic linguistic principle is involved in the absence of such morphemes. The rise of new suffix in English goes to corroborate this.
A new words are needed with regard to adverbal derivatives. Adeverbal derivative is not fundamentally different from a cpd whose first member is a verb stem, so as in the case of denominal suffixes, a great number of meanings are possible. In practice, however, the possibilities are much restricted. Deverbal suffixes express grammatical functions than semantic concepts, and the usual implications are «act, fact, instance of…» (
arrival
,
quidanse
,
warning
), sometimes «state of…» (
starvation
,
bewilderment
), «agent» (personal or impersonal:
baker
,
eraser
,
disinfectant
), «personal object» (direct or indirect, only with -
e
e
,
transferee
,
draftee
), «object of result» (
breakade
,
savings
), «plase» (
settlement
,
brewery
, lodgings). Similar considerations apply to derivation by a zero morpheme (
pickpocket
,
blackaut
, look).
2.5
Th
e valency of affixes and stems
Another essential feature of affixes that should not be overlooked is their
combining power
or
valency
, i.e. the types of types of the stems with which they they occur.
We have already seen that not all combinations of existing morphemes are actually used. This,
unhappy
,
untrue
and unattractive are quite regular combinations, while seemingly analogous
unsad
,
unfalse
, un-
pretty
seems unusual. The possibility of particular stem taking a particular affix depends on phonomor-phological, morphological and semantic factors. The suffix ance - ence, for instance, occurs onli after b, t, d, dz, v, l, r, m, n,:
disturbance
,
insistence
,
indepence
, but not after s or z:
condensation
,
organization
.
It is of course impossible to describe the whole system. To make our point clear we shall take adjectives as an example. The adjective-forming suffixes are mostly attached to noun stems. They are: - ed (
barbed
), - en (golden), - ful (careful), - less (careless), - ly (soldierly), - like (childlike), - y (hearty) and some others. The highly productive suffix-able can be combined with noun stems and verbal stems alike (clubbable). It is especially frequent in the pattern in the pattern un - +
verbal stem
+ able (
unbearable
). Sometimes it is even attached to phrases producing compound derivatives (
unbrushoffable
,
ungetatable
). These characteristics are of great importance both structurally and semantically.
Their structural significance is clear if we realize that to describe the system of a given vocabulary one must know the typical patterns on which its words are coined. To achieve this it is necessary not only to know the morphemes of which they consist but also to reveal their recurrent+ regular combinations and the relationship existing between them. This approach ensures a rigorously linguistic basis for the identification of lexico-grammatical classes within each part of speech. In the English language these classes are so far little studied, although inquiry info this problem seems very promising and begins to affect attention.
It is also worthy of note that from the viewpoint of the information theory the fact that not every affix is capable of combining with any given stem makes the code more reliable, protects it from noise.
Noise
as a term of the theory of information is used to denote any kind of interference with the process of communication, mistakes, and misunderstanding.
The valiancy of stems is not therefore unlimited. Noun stems can be followed by the noun-forming suffixes: - age (bondage), - dom (serfdom), - eer, - ier (profitter, collier), ess (waitress), - ful (spoonful), - hood (childhood), - ian (physician), ics (linguistics), - ie / - y (daddy), - ing (flooring), - ism (heroism), - ist (violinist), - let (cloudlet), - ship (friendship); by the adjective-forming suffixes: - a/ - ial (doctoral), - an (African), - ary (revolutionary), - ed (wooded), - ful (hopeful), - ic, - ical (historic, historical), - ish (childish), - like (businesslike), - ly (friendly)/ - ous/ - ious/ - eous (spacious), - some (handsome), - y (cloudy); verb - forming suffixes: - ate (aerate), - en (hearten), - fy/, - ify (speechify), - ize (sympathize).
Verbal stems are almost equal to noun stems in valiancy. They combine with the following noun-forming suffixes: - age (breakage), - al (betrayal), - ance/ - ense (guidance, reference), - ant/ - ent (assistant, student), - ee (evacuee), - er/ - or (painter, editor), - ing (uprising), - ion/ - tion/ ation (action, information), - ment (government). The adjective - forming suffixes used with verbal stems are: - able/ - ible (agreeable, comprehensible), - ive/ - sive/ - tive (talkative), - some (meddlesome).
Adjective stems furnish a shorter list: - dom (freedom), - ism (realism), - ity/ - ty (reality, cruelty), - ness (brightness), ish (reddish), - ly (firmly), - ate (differentiate), - en (sharpen), - fy/ - ify (solidify).
The combining possibilities (or valiancy) are very important semantically because the meaning of the derivative depends not only on the morphemes of Wichita's composed but also on combinations of stave and affix that can be contrasted with it. Contrast is to be local for in the use of the same morpheme in different environment and also in the use of different morphemes in environments otherwise the same.
The difference between the suffixes -
i
ty
and - ism, for instance, will become clear if we compare them as combined with identical stems in the following oppositions:
formality
:
formalism
:
humanity
:
humanist
:
reality
:
realism
. Roughly, the words in -
i
ty
mean the quality of being what the corresponding adjective describes, or an instance of this quality. The resulting nouns are countable. The suffix -
i
sm
forms nouns, naming a disposition to what the adjective describes or a corresponding type of ideology. Beng uncountable they belong to a different lexico-grammatical class.
The similarity on which an apposition is based may consist, for the material under consideration in the present paragraph, in the sameness of a suffix. A description of suffixes according to the stems with which they are combined and the lexico-grammatical classes they serve to differentiate may be helpful in the analysis of the meanings they are used to render.
A good example is furnished by the suffix -
i
sh
, as a suffix of adjectives. The combining possibilities of the suffix -
i
sh
are vast but not unlimited.
Boyish
and
waspish
are used, where as
enmesh
and
aspish
are not. The constraints here are of semantic nature. It is regularly present in the names of nationalities as for example: British, Irish, Spanish. When added to noun stems, it formes adjectives of the type «having the nature of with a moderately derogatory colouring»
bookish
,
churlish
,
monkeyish
,
sheepish
,
swinish
.
Chidish
has a derogatory twist of meaning, the adjective with a good sense is
childlike
. A man may be said to behave with a
childish petulance
, but with a
childlike simplicity
. Compare also
womanly
having the qualities befitting a woman, as in
womanly compassion
,
womanly grace
,
womanly tact
, with the derogatory
womanish
effeminate as in:
Womanish tears
,
traitors to love and duty
. (Cole ridge).
With adjective stems the meaning is not derogatory, the adjective renders a moderate degree of the quality named:
greenish
somewhat green,
stiffish
somewhat stiff,
thinnish
somewhat thin. The model is especially frequent with colours:
blackish
,
brownish
,
reddish
. A similar but stylistically peculiar meaning is observed in combinations with numeral stems.
eightyish
,
fortyish
and the like are equivalent to round about eighty, round about forty:
Whats she like, Min?
«
Sixtyish
Stout
Grey hair
.
Tweeds
.
Red face
.» (MCCRONE)
In colloquial speech the suffix -
i
sh
is added to words denoting the time of the day:
four-oclockish
or more often
fourish
means round about four o'clock For example: Robert and I went to a
cocktail party at Annette's
.
(I
tuas called
«
drinks at six thirty ish
» -
t
he word
«
cocktail
»
was going out).
(W. COOPER).
The study of correlations of derivatives and stems is also helpful in bringing into relief the meaning of the affix. The lexico-grammatical meaning of the suffix-
ness
that forms nouns of quality from adjective stems becomes clear from the study of correlations of the derivative and the underlying stem. A few examples picked up at random will be sufficient proof:
good
:
goodness
:
kind
:
kindness
:
lonely
:
loneliness
:
ready
:
readiness
:
righteous
:
righteousness
:
slow
:
slowness
.
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