When confronted with a new object or practice for which words are needed, the borrower may somehow adopt material in his own language. A new idiom arises and since it arises under the impact of another linguistic system, it is a «loanshift».
A loanblend is a new idiom developed in the borrowing situation in which both the loanword and the loan shift mechanisms are involved: the borrower imports part of the model and replaces part of it by something already in his own language.
The type of the word borrowed by personal contact would undoubtedly at first be names of objects unfamiliar to the borrowers, or products, and commodities exchanged by way of trade. If the contacts were maintained over a long period then ideas concerned with government, law, religion and customs might be absorbed and perhaps the names of these would be adopted. Only in the case of nations in relatively advanced stages of civilization would there be much influence exerted through the written word; concrete objects would come first, then abstract ideas learnt from what might actually be seen from their effects in everyday life and abstract ideas through the indirect contact achieved by books would come much later.
The international word-stock is also growing due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari etc. These come from many different sources.
International words should not to be mixed with words of the common Indo-European stock that also comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages.
This layer is of great importance for the foreign language teacher not only because many words denoting abstract notions are international but also because he must know the most efficient ways of showing the points of similarity and difference between such words as control:контрол (назорат), general: генерал, industry:индустрия (саноат), magazine: магазин (дукон), etc. usually called `translator's false friends.
The treatment of international words at English lessons would be one-sided if the teacher did not draw his pupils' attention to the spread of the English vocabulary into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, time. A large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary pertaining to clothes: jersey, pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed etc. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many international words of English origin: film, club, cocktail, jazz. At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, Bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, kremlin, rouble mammoth, sambo, steppe, vodks.
We should also include here Uzbek language which was under influence of Russian language for a long period of time but didn't lose its properties and its own word-stock and now being.
2.5 International words as loan words
As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words.
Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.
International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind's cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone, concert, duet, opera, piano and many more.
The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word-stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithms, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic, code, graph, microelectronics etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian, Uzbek and several other languages.
To adapt means to make or undergo modifications in function and structure so as to be fit for a new use, a new environment or a new situation. Being adaptive system the vocabulary is constantly adjusting itself to the changing requirements and conditions of human communications and cultural and other needs. This process of self-regulation of the lexical system is a result of overcoming contradictions between the state of the system and the demands it has to meet. The speaker chooses from the existing stock of words such words that in his opinion can adequately express his thought and feeling. It is important to stress that the development is not confined to coining new words on the existing patterns but in adapting the very structure of the system to its changing functions.
According to F. de Saussure synchronic linguistics deals with systems and diachronic linguistic - with single elements, and the two methods must be kept strictly apart. A language system then should be studied as something fixed and unchanging, whereas we observe the opposite: it is constantly changed and readjusted as the need arises. The concept of adaptive systems overcomes this contradiction and permits us to study language as a constantly developing but systematic whole. The adaptive system approach gives a more adequate account of the systematic phenomena of a vocabulary by explaining more facts about the functioning of words and providing more relevant generalizations, because we can take into account the influence of extra - linguistic reality. The study of the vocabulary as an adaptive system reveals the pragmatic essence of the communication process, i. e. the way language is used to influence the addressee. There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the type of system involved, although the majority of linguists nowadays agree that the vocabulary should be studied as a system. Our present state of knowledge is, however, insufficient to present the whole of the vocabulary as one articulated system, so we deal with it as if it were a set of interrelated systems.
The language of independent Uzbekistan is contributing to the world languages enriching them with new notions: kurash, chap, halol, chala, (sport terms), bazar, sumalak etc.
To sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress that in studying borrowed words a linguist cannot be content with establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be concerned with the changes the new language system into which the loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and on the other hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed some of its lexical neighbors aside. In the discussion above we have tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.
Conclusion
The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language. It is there that the historical circumstances are discussed under which words borrowed from Latin, from Scandinavian dialects, from Norman and Parisian French and many other languages, including Russian, were introduced into English. Lexicology, on the other hand, has in this connection tasks of its own, being chiefly concerned with the material and the results of assimilation.
The main problems of etymology and borrowed words as they concern the English language are comprehensively and consistently treated in Professor A.I. Smirnitsky's book on lexicology. Professor A.I. Smirnitsky deals with these issues mainly in terms of word sameness reflecting his methodological approach to word theory.
In the present paragraph attention must be concentrated on the assimilation of loan words as a way of their interaction with the system of the language as a whole. The term assimilation of a borrowed word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetically, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends on the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i. e. borrowings through written speech.
The list of used literature
1. «A textbook of translation» Peter Newmark 1995
2. A course in theoretical English Grammar M.Y. Blokh.
3. Блумфилд Л «Язык» М. 1968
4. Смирницкий А.И. «Синтаксис английского языка». Москва 1957
5. Bryant M.A. «Functional English Grammar». N.Y. 1945
6. Strang B. «Modern English Structure» L.D. 1974
7. Sweet H.A. «New English Grammar Logical and Historical» Pt. 1. Oxf., 1891. Pt. 2. Oxf., 1898
8. «A Grammar of Present-day English» E.M. Govdon, I.P. Krylova. Москва 1971
9. Francis W.N. «The structure of American English» New York. 1998
10. Information from Internet. http. www.
11. Zandvoort R.W. «A Handbook of English Grammar» 1958
12. Reference Guide top Grammar. A Handbook of English as a second language USIA Edition first published 1994
13. I.G. Koshevaya «The theory of English Grammar» «Просвешение», 1982
14. Ilyish. «The structure of Modern English» «Просвешение», Ленинград 1971
15. Хаймович, Б.С. Роговская Б.И. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. «Высшая школа» Москва 1987
16. Чейф У.Л. «Значения и структура языка» Москва 1975
17. M.A. Ganshina, N.M. Vasilevskaya «English Grammar» Higher school Publishing House 1964
18. Andre Lefevere, «Translation: Its Geneology in the West,» in Translation, History amd Culture, ed. Susan Bassnett and Andre Lefevere (London and New York: Pinter Publishers, 1990), 14.
19. George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 265-66, 276-78, citations on 277, 266, respectively. See also Lefevere, «Translation: Its Geneology in the West,» 16-18; Susan Bassnett-McGuire, Translation Studies (London and New York: Methuen, 1980), 54, 56, 58.
20. Lefevere, «Translation: Its Geneology in the West,» 18-20 (p. 19, paraphrasing Schleiermacher).
21. Cited in Bassnett-McGuire, Translation Studies, 5-6.
22. Lefevere, «Translation: Its Geneology in the West,» 26-27.
23. Bassnett-McGuire, Translation Studies, 23.
24. Achilles Fang, «Some Reflections on the Difficulty of Translation,» in On Translation, ed. Reuben A. Brower (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966),
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