7. Summary, repetition, exemplification, intensification: to sum up, in brief, on the whole, in sum, in short, as I have said, in other words, that is, to be sure, as has been noted, for example, for instance, in fact, indeed, to tell the truth, in any event
8. Time: meanwhile, at length, soon, after a few days, in the meantime, afterward, later, now, in the past.
10. Prune Deadwood
Deadwood is material that adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, words that serve only as filler. When you edit your writing, eliminate any words or phrases that can be removed without damaging the meaning of the sentence or paragraph:
no: I spent my first six weeks on the job in a state of shock, but today I have a completely different perspective on the company in general, as compared to when I first started.
yes: I spent my first six weeks on the job in a state of shock, but today I have a completely different perspective on the company.
Occasional exceptions to this principle may be justified for the sake of emphasis or rhythm.
11. Avoid Redundancy
Redundancy, the unnecessary repetition of information, is a subset of deadwood, but one that is important enough to deserve separate mention:
no: Brackets are used in a command format description to indicate that the enclosed parameter is optional and, therefore, may be supplied or not at the user's discretion.
yes: Brackets are used in a command format description to indicate that the enclosed parameter is optional.
Occasional exceptions to this principle may be justified for the sake of emphasis or coherence.
12. Use Metaphor to Illustrate
Metaphor may be broadly defined as an imaginative comparison, expressed or implied, between two generally unlike things, for the purpose of illustration. By this definition, similes (expressed comparisons) are a subset of metaphor. In prose (as opposed to poetry), metaphors are most often used to illustrate, and thus make clear, abstract ideas: "When two atoms approach each other at great speeds they go through one another, while at moderate speeds they bound off each other like two billiard balls" (Sir William Bragg).
Whenever you use figurative language, be careful to avoid cliches--trite, overworn words or phrases that have lost their power to enliven your writing. If you can't think of a fresh, imaginative way to express an idea, it's better to express it in literal terms than to resort to a cliche. Hence,
Solving the problem was as easy as pie.
becomes
Solving the problem was easy.
Note that even solitary nouns, verbs, and modifiers can be cliched. For example,
He's such a clown.
I've got to fly.
The competition was stiff.
Often such cliches are what George Orwell calls "dying metaphors"--words and phrases that were once used figuratively, but that now border on the literal. That is, we've used these terms so often that we now scarcely consider their figurative implications.
As with tone, rhythm, and many of the other stylistic considerations discussed here, you must ultimately rely upon your own sensitivity to the language to guide you in determining when a word or phrase is cliched.
Finally, according to Collett Dilworth and Robert Reising, the golden rule of writing is "to write to be read fluently by another human being . . . the most moral reason for observing any specific writing convention is that it will shape and facilitate a reader's understanding, not simply that it will be used 'correctly'." So as George Orwell says in "Politics and the English Language": "Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous."
BASIC PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS
1. Commas
1.1 (a) Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so) that joins two independent clauses (compare 2.1). (An independent or main clause is a clause that can stand by itself as a separate sentence.):
The children escaped the fire without harm, but their mother was not so lucky.
(b) If the clauses are short and closely related, a comma is not required:
Frank typed and Matt watched.
(c) If the coordinate clauses are long or themselves contain commas, you can often avoid confusion by separating them with semicolons:
Paul went to his car, got a gun, and returned to the lake; but Bill, unfortunately, refused to be intimidated.
1.2 Use a comma to separate an introductory element (clause, phrase, conjunctive adverb, or mild interjection) from the rest of the sentence:
If you refuse to leave, I'll call the police. (clause)
To prepare for her exam, Lynn reread all of her notes. (phrase)
Nevertheless, much work still remains to be done. (conjunctive adverb)
Well, I was surprised to achieve these results. (interjection)
1.3 (a) Use commas to set off parenthetical elements or interrupters (including transitional adverbs):
The report, which was well documented, was discussed with considerable emotion. (nonrestrictive clause)
They were, however, still able to meet their deadline.(transitional adverb)
An important distinction must be made here between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers. Restrictive modifiers are essential to the meaning of the sentence in that they restrict that meaning to a particular case. Hence, restrictive modifiers are not parenthetical and cannot be removed without seriously damaging the meaning. Since they are necessary to the meaning, restrictive modifiers are not set off by commas:
All soldiers who are overweight will be forced to resign.
Nonrestrictive modifiers are parenthetical. That is, they digress, amplify, or explain, but are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. These modifiers simply provide additional information for the reader--information which, although it may be interesting, does not restrict the meaning of the sentence and can be removed without changing the sentence's essential meaning:
Sgt. Price, who is overweight, will be forced to resign.
(b) Use commas to set off parenthetical elements that retain a close logical relationship to the rest of the sentence. Use dashes or parentheses to set off parenthetical elements whose logical relationship to the rest of the sentence is more remote (compare 4.2 and 5.1).
1.4 Use commas to join items in a series. Except in journalism, this includes a comma before the conjunction that links the last item to the rest of the series:
Before making a decision, he studied the proposition, interviewed many of the people concerned, and tried to determine if there were any historical precedents.
1.5 Although not called for by any of the above principles, commas are sometimes required to avoid the confusion of mistaken junction:
She recognized the man who entered the room, and gasped.
2. Semicolons
2.1 Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning and are not joined by a coordinating conjunction (compare 1.1):
A filemode digit of 3 identifies a temporary file; temporary files are deleted automatically after being read.
2.2 Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second one begins with or includes a conjunctive adverb (nevertheless, therefore, however, otherwise, as a result, etc.) (compare 1.3):
If CMS is waiting, the entry will be processed immediately; otherwise, it will be queued until requested.
2.3 To avoid confusion, use semicolons to separate items in a series when one or more of the items includes commas (see also 1.1c):
This manual also summarizes the Graduate School's mechanical requirements for theses; discusses the special requirements of students who are submitting computer programs as theses; reviews basic principles of punctuation, mechanics, and style; and refers student s to standard references on punctuation, mechanics, style, and usage.
3. Colons
3.1 Use a colon to introduce a list, an example, an amplification, or an explanation directly related to something just mentioned (compare 4.1) and 4.4):
The user may work from one of three modes when typing data into the file area: edit mode, input mode, or power typing. He eventually found that there was only one way to get the quality he expected from the people who worked for him: treat them with respect.
3.2 Use a colon to introduce a formal statement or quotation (usually of more than one line):
Writers who care about the quality of their work would do well to heed Samuel Johnson's advice: What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure.
4. Dashes
If your word-processor doesn't have an em-dash (a dash that is the width of a capital M) in its special character set, use two hyphens (--) to make a dash. Whichever one you use, except in journalism, you should leave no space between or on either side of the dash itself. Dashes are more widely accepted today than they were in the past; however, many writers and editors still consider them to be somewhat less formal marks of punctuation--use them sparingly.
4.1 Use a dash to introduce a summarizing word, phrase, or clause, such as an appositive (a noun set beside another noun and identifying or explaining it) (compare 3.1):
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