Civil cases: most are minor, settled in Small Claims Court (involving sum of money < ?5,000), by a district judge, if he decides that you are right can award costs and usually compensation / damages. The more serious matter (e.g. car) - to the County court (circuit judge - travels to the place). You'd be represented by a solicitor or a barrister, if the case is serious (e.g. road accident and somebody was badly injured). If you are dissatisfied - to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division).
Criminal cases: Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, works under the guidance of the Attorney-General. Crown Prosecution Service sends barristers and solicitors.
3 types of offences: 1) summary offences (95%) - e.g. motoring offences, dealt with in Magistrates' courts (Justice of the Peace) - 3 people, ordinary citizens, chosen by the community, appointed by the Lord Chancellor on recommendations by local groups; unpaid, not professional lawyers (lay magistrates), without any jury - so advised on points of law and procedure by a special legally qualified clerk. Magistrates' court can sentence to less than 6 month imprisonment or a fine of less than ?5,000, if more serious - send to the Crown Court. 2) Offence triable either way (e.g. car theft) - choice belongs to the defendant, decides either should be heard by lay magistrates or the Crown Court. 3) Indictable offences (e.g. robbery, at the point of the gun or knife) - only in the Crown Court, presided by High Court Judges (full-time circuit judges) with a jury of 12 people (jurors). Crown Courts also hear the cases from Magistrates. If dissatisfied - to the Court of Appeal (the Criminal Division). Verdict is reached by the jury, after they have heard. Jury - local people (constitutional duty). The judge sits in the court room, makes sure that the trial is properly conducted. Counsel for prosecution, for Defense. The judge ~ guides, helps the jury to reach the verdict. Person is presumed to be innocent unless the prosecution can prove guilt above all reasonable doubt. Convicted, acquitted, recessed.
Offences: murder, manslaughter, rape, assault, assault and battery, arson, robbery, burglary, theft, mugging, shoplifting, kidnapping, embezzlement, bribery, forgery, perjury, slander, libel, blackmail, abuse of power/confidence, disorderly conduct, speeding.
Punishment: fine, imprisonment, community service, probation (report to a special probation officer), remand in custody, remand on bail, to grant, deny bail, release on parole; death penalty abolished in 1969. The age of criminal responsibility 10 years. For children - Juvenile Court (youth court), 15 years peak age: allow to live within the family, under special supervision, take into local authority care (in a community home), attend special school, live with foster parents, community service.
Lawyers. Solicitors - the lower category, may deal with public, barristers - cannot approach public. A person -> solicitor -> barrister - speaks in court. Solicitor speaks in the Magistrates' Courts. Law society - for solicitors, the Bar - for barristers. Queen's Counsels (QC) - in important cases. No special training for judges, Lord Chancellor decides who is to be a judge, chooses barristers.
9. The class system of modern Britain: the expansion of the middle class, class mobility, the upper classes, the emergence of a new underclass, the main causes of this, the British notion of professional classes, the perception of class system and class conflict in modern society
1990's: upper class 1%, upper middle 3%, middle 16%, lower middle 25%, skilled working 25%, unskilled working 17%, underclass 13%. A market feature of last 3 decades of 20th century - major expansion of the middle class. In 1900 75% of manual workers, in 1991 - 36%. 2mln jobs created in the professional and managerial fields, works became more skilled and the service sector grew considerably; average income grew, so nowadays much of the working class population can afford a middle class life style. Thatcher made 2/3 of population house-owners by selling council houses for give-away prices, overwhelming majority have a bank account or a building society account; share-holders due to the privatization of state companies in 1980's. Traditionally working at a plant was considered working class, but essentially middle class - a lot of mobility between middle, lower middle and working classes. Least mobility in upper class, in underclass - another result of Thatcher's policies (abolished full-employment). 1% own ? of the nation's wealth; inheritance, spread around the family to minimize the effect of taxation. Young people - professionals, like civil servants, lawyers, armed forced - during Thatcher's period, a lot of them moved from the public service to the private sector, because of salaries. In 1964 people were asked if there was class struggle - 48% “yes”, in 1995 - 81%.
10. Historic country houses as part of British national heritage: the development of attitudes from the mid-19th century to the present day. The role of the main aristocratic families, the National Trust and the government in the preservation of the country houses
Until early 19th century - private houses of the aristocracy. Their role as national heritage began then. The Victorian idea - Tudor and Jacobean houses, contrasted to the 18the century houses which considered not-English, cosmopolitan.
A writer Nash published a book about them, everybody could see. Started traveling a lot, one of the most popular pastimes, + railways (1825), all classes excluding working classes. Few owners needed financial contribution, so no fee (only in 3-4 houses).
In 2nd half of the 19th century - change, friendly attitude broken, general public began to be called philistines (commerce, urbanization, comforts). Middle class - cosmopolitan resorts (Nice, Biarritz - tone was set by Edward, Victoria's son). In European countries - opposite. In Jan 1895 - a charitable trust was set up, the National Trust (1st chairman - Duke of Westminster). Accepted gifts from people who cared, bought houses by public subscription, membership fees. Bought only ~60 houses. The second group of people - owners themselves - barbarians. Didn't want to maintain. Deep agriculture depression, prices of land fell, grain prices fell, => economic and political power suffered severe blows, land and money more important than houses and contents, large houses were very expensive to maintain - found buyers, or redecorated, destroying historical features. In 1894 - death duty introduced, this ruined many aristocratic families. The third group - small, almost marginal - aesthetes, criticized philistines and barbarians.
Between the WW - public valuation continued to deteriorate, visiting stopped, closed, abandoned or demolished. Urbanization of the country - landowners began to sell land (death duty - 50%), ~ 1/5 of landowners fell out of the class. While they could sell lands, nobody needed houses, they could be bough “for a song”. Lots demolished, lots sold to various institutions, like public schools, colleges, youth hostels.
After WWII - change, deal with the government (schools, or store houses for national art collections); if not - to accommodate troops. Also - once is taken - no death duty. Everybody felt there was no future for the country houses life, lots demolished, sold, needed for schools, hospitals.
Late 50's-60's period of growing land prices, many landowners became multimillionaires. Then a group was formed “heritage in danger”. Tax exemption for important works of art, buildings, stretches of land. Owners were allowed to put their property in “maintenance funds” - controlled by the family, but treated as public bodies. Apply for maintenance grants - historic building council.
Nowadays - 1: privately owned houses - HHA (historic houses association), in best condition. 2: owned by the National Trust (membership fee, but visiting free). 3: owned by the Government, 1984 English heritage set up, organization funded by the Government, shells - nothing inside, or ruins. There is Secretary in the Cabinet for English Heritage. Besides buying - grants export license to take it out of the country, administers Historic Buildings Council grants. 4: institutional use, e.g. Warwick Castle - Mme Tussaud's.
British History
1. Name the invaders who came to the British Isles before the Norman Conquest.
The Celts (700 BC), the Romans (55, 54 BC Caesar; 44, 77 AD Agricola), the Scotts from Ireland, the Picts from far north, the Anglo-Saxons (6th century), the Vikings (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes)
2. Who were the Druids?
The ancient Celtic priests and teachers, religious leaders, before Christianity.
3. What is Hadrian's Wall?
A stone wall which the Roman Emperor Hadrian ordered to be built across the north of England in 122 AD from the east coast to the west, in order to defend Roman Britain from attack by northern tribes. Every 15 miles - fort. In Northumberland.
4. What do the words "Danelaw" and "Danegeld" stand for?
Area conquered by the Danes, money (ransom) paid to the invaders.
5. What do you know about the battle of Hastings?
14 Oct 1066, the Norman King William the Conqueror defeated the army of the English King Harold.
6. Trace the history of religious on the British Isles up to the final conversion to Christianity.
Druids, paganism, -> pagan Romans, eradicated druids, -> 391 Theodosius ordered the closure of all pagan temples, -> 597 Pope Gregory sent mission to convert Anglo-Saxons, St. Augustine - missionary; monasteries, churches, by 8th century Christianized.
7. What changes did the Romans bring to Britain?
Introduction of towns, baths in each, aqueducts, drainage, sewage, walls against invasions, armed camps, villas, introduces some vegetables and fruits.
8. When was England part of a Scandinavian Empire? The Angevin Empire?
11th cent. 1154 - end of the 14th century.
9. Comment on the origin of names like Gloucester, Worcester, Essex, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday.
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